Full text of 'v 15THE MANUAL ARTSBYCHARLES A. S.Editor of Industrial Education Magazine,Formerly Professor of Manual Arts, Bradley Polytechnic InstituteTHE MANUAL ARTS PRESSPEORIA, ILLINOISCopyright, 1917,CHARLES A.
BENNETT,32B31Printed in the United States of America.I L ITix q.COLLEOBCALIFORNIAPREFACE'l A HE greatest present problems affecting the-. manual arts in education, whether that educa-tion be vocational or cultural in its aim, are cen-tered around the selection and organization ofsubject-matter and methods of teaching. Believ-ing this to be true, the author contributes the fol-lowing chapters to the discussion of these prob-lems, hoping that they may be of some service tohis fellow workers.Several of the chapters have previously ap-peared as articles in magazines. When broughttogether, however, they have a significance whichthey did not possess as isolated articles appearingfrom time to time over a period of several years.Acknowledgment for permission to republish isdue to Education, Educational Review, VocationalEducation and Manual Training Magazine.CHAS.
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BENNETT.Peoria, Illinois, March 28, 1917.TABLE OF CONTENTS.CHAPTER I. WHICH OF THE MANUAL ARTSSHALL BE TAUGHT IN THE SCHOOLS? 11Manual efficiency of our forefathers. Manualwork not taught in school, but the three R's taughtfor their practical value.
The expansion of educa-tion to include science, engineering and history.Modern living and business conditions comparedwith those of our grandfathers. The greater use ofmachinery.
Modern home conveniences and labor-saving devices require a more general knowledge ofthe principles and processes of industry. Apprecia-tion of industrial products and ability to purchaseintelligently require industrial knowledge.
Theschool must teach industry. The manual artsclassified with reference to subject-matter. Thegraphic arts a language.
Interdependence of thegraphic arts and constructive arts. The mechanicarts. Increasing importance of the plastic arts.The textile arts. The peculiar importance of thebook-making arts. All of the five groups of manualarts should be taught in the schools.CHAPTER II. THE PLACE OF THE MANUALARTS IN EDUCATION 22The dual function of the manual arts in educa-tion.
The manual arts as a means in attaining theend in education. Ways in which the manual artscontribute to social efficiency. The manual arts as56 THE MANUAL ARTSa factor in the educative process.
Importance ofexperience. The manual arts regarded as both sub-ject and method. The place of the manual arts inthe primary grades; in the grammar grades; in thehigh school. Variety of materials, processes, ex-periences, and little technic in the primary grades.Good technic, the formation of correct habits,thoroness, problems of industrial value in grammargrades. Vocational purpose, emphasis on processesthat are fundamental, industrial standards in thehigh school.CHAPTER III. THE DEVELOPMENT OF AP-PRECIATION 35Results of manual arts instruction; power to do,power to appreciate what others do. Conditions ofappreciation: ability to produce, ability to express,experience.
To know about a work of art is notsufficient basis for appreciation. Illustrations frommusic. Similar illustrations in water-color paint-ing, art smithing, hammered copper.
Keyence Xg Vision Editor Manual Arts Free
Differencebetween appreciation of the thing represented andappreciation of the art employed in representation.Experience essential. The function ofthe public schools in reference to teaching appre-ciation. Public school curriculum should includefundamental processes of the five manual arts.CHAPTER IV. VOCATIONAL TRAINING: ToWHAT EXTENT JUSTIFIABLE IN PUBLICSCHOOLS 46Educational expenditure in business enterprises.The amount of such expenditure that is justifiable.TABLE OF CONTENTSApplication of the same principle to public educa-tion. Purpose of public schools fundamentallyvocational. Economic value of education not suffi-ciently appreciated in America. Emphasis on voca-tional elements in education need not mean sacrificeof cultural elements.
The best cultural educationmay come thru a training that is fundamentallyvocational. The nation is justified in trainingspecialists. Origin of the term 'Made in Ger-many. ' Motive in the development of vocationaleducation in Germany.CHAPTER V.
THE SELECTION AND ORGAN-IZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER IN THEMANUAL ARTS 54No need of sharp line of demarkation betweenvocational training and cultural training. Voca-tional training in the manual arts is good manualtraining plus the factory system. Desirable toselect subject-matter having present industrialvalue.
Select subject-matter from typical commonindustries rather than from exceptional or un-common ones. Statistics concerning industries.Selection of subject-matter based on analysis ofindustries.
Factories recognize the importance ofanalysis. Different kinds of analysis. Importanceof selecting typical modern industries for analysis.Group analysis.
Each group to contain some vitalelement or elements. Groups arranged in sequen-tial order.8 THE MANUAL ARTSCHAPTER VI. THE GROUP METHOD OF OR-GANIZING SUBJECT-MATTER IN THE MAN-UAL ARTS WITH REFERENCE TO TEACH-ING 68Original purpose of the group method to har-monize class and individual instruction. Difficul-ties in teaching that called forth the group method.Illustrations of these difficulties. A course of in-struction under the group method. Class instruc-tion.
Individual instruction. The group methodand class management. No two pupils work thesame combination of problems. A parallel foundin the teaching of history.
Illustration of a course.A group described. Allows for varied methods ofteaching in the same class.
Graph of accomplish-ment. Individual differences provided for. Indi-vidual development combined with class progress.CHAPTER VII. THE USE OF THE FACTORYSYSTEM IN TEACHING THE MANUAL ARTS 85Turning out a salable product is not sufficientguarantee that a school shop is giving superior in-struction; a factory does that and makes no pretenseat being an educational institution.
Large factoriesare teaching their apprentices in non-productiveshops organized on an educational basis. Producingwoodworking factory shop at Bradley Institute. Disposing of the products of the fac-tory. Cost system introduced. Shop order sheet,cost sheet, time slip. Course of instruction. GroupsA, B, C, D, E, and F.
Value of aproducing factory demonstrated for advanced in-TABLE OF CONTENTS 9struction; non-producing factory better for earlystages of shop instruction. Opinions of manufac-turers.CHAPTER VIII. THREE TYPICAL METHODSOF TEACHING THE MANUAL ARTS 103Three typical methods described: (i) imitative,(2) discovery, (3) inventive. Utilization of the in-stinct to imitate. Value of the imitative method inteaching technic, in guiding habit formation.
Thecontrol of imitation. Claims for the discoverymethod. Emphasizes individual differences. As amatter of fact pupils will imitate each other if notallowed to imitate the teacher.
Discovery methoduneconomical. Effect of the inventive methodcompared with that of the imitative. Student's re-lation to his work in the inventive method.
All three methods should be used in teachingthe manual arts in public schools.QUESTIONS. 113CHAPTER I.WHICH OF THE MANUAL ARTS SHALL BETAUGHT IN THE SCHOOLS?OUR forefathers came to this country civil-ized and equipped for the tasks beforethem.
They came with habits of worship andreverence, with ideals of liberty and with knowl-edge of legal procedure. They came also withmanual efficiency; some were farmers; otherswere carpenters, masons, millers, wheelwrightsand blacksmiths; the women could spin andweave, sew and cook, clean and manage a house-hold.
When schools were established, thesewere to train men to become lawyers, statesmenand preachers of the gospel. Schools for themanual industries were not needed becauseeverybody worked with his hands, and the the-ories, recipes and traditions of the crafts werehanded down from father to son, or from masterto apprentice.
The common schools taught allchildren to read and write because such instruc-tion was considered a necessary safeguard tothe democratic form of government which wasadopted. Ability to cipher, also, was considereddesirable for all, and in the villages and townsit soon became essential because it had to dowith money and the sale of merchandise.12 THE MANUAL ARTSDecades came and went and left pioneers stillsubduing the forest lands and exterminating theIndians. Generations passed; cities began tospring up and grow; the prairie lands of theCentral States began to yield an abundant har-vest and the mines to give up their rich stores.Manual labor, joined with natural resources,yielded great wealth. But during all this timethe school was not called upon to train in manualindustry. The school had, however, greatly in-creased its facilities for training for citizenshipand the professions; academies, colleges and pro-fessional schools had been established and wererapidly growing into great universities; and thecommon schools had been multiplied to keep pacewith the expanding frontier.Then came the demand for men trained inscience and engineering to build railroads andbridges, canals and aqueducts, engines, ships andmachinery of all kinds. This practical demand ledto the establishment of schools of science and engi-neering, and soon the science studies found theirway into the curriculum of the common schools.The growth and struggles of the nation demandeda more broadly educated citizenship, and historicalstudies and the study of social problems also founda place in school work.While all this remarkable development has beengoing on in the national life and in the school, theWHICH OF THE MANUAL ARTS SHALL BE TAUGHT?
13mode of living has changed as rapidly. The simplelife of the earlier days has given way to the manycomplexities of our present life. Now we all wantmodern houses; we want them individual in design,finished in hard woods, heated by automaticallyregulated furnaces, supplied with an abundanceof water, gas, electricity, and telephones connect-ing us with our neighbors and friends. We wantartistic draperies, rugs and wall coverings, goodfurniture, fine pictures, statuary and musical instru-ments. If we compare our present homes withthe homes of our grandfathers when we were chil-dren, we realize what a rapid and remarkablechange has taken place. About the same changehas taken place in reference to our food and cloth-ing.
Instead of contenting ourselves with what canbe raised in our own garden or our own town, weget food from the most distant parts of the earth,and by rapid transportation we have largely over-come the limitations of season. We no longerspin and weave in our own homes; knitting by handis almost a lost art, and most of the sewing is done'on the machine.' When we turn from the hometo business the same is true. The farmer who isnot equipped with motive power and machinery,can hardly expect to compete in the market. Theox team has given way to the traction engine, thecradle to the self-binding reaper, and so onthru the list. This is equally true in manufac-turing and nearly every other line of business.14 THE MANUAL ARTSThings are being done at greater speed and in amanner that requires a more elaborate equipment.All this development has immensely increasedthe output demanded of the producing and dis-tributing industries.
This demand in turn hasincreased the need for skilled workmen. Anotherfactor that has acted with this need is the internaldevelopment in the industries themselves, whichhas come in part from the necessity of a more eco-nomical use of materials, but principally from thediscoveries of science and their application toindustry. If one tries to enumerate the changes inthe metal industries alone that have followed theapplication of electricity in the telegraph, the tele-phone, the electric light, and electric motors hesoon sees how endless is the undertaking.
A veryimportant result of this development in the indus-tries is the need of men with a wider knowledgeof the materials and processes of industry and theprinciples upon which the processes and the useof the materials rest. This knowledge is not beinghanded down from father to son to any greatextent, nor from master to apprentice, partlybecause the factory system does not easily lenditself to education, and partly because the knowl-edge needed is so new that even the masters them-selves find it difficult to keep up with the develop-ment. But this need for a wider knowledge of theprinciples and processes of industry is not confinedto the workers in these producing industries.
EveryWHICH OF THE MANUAL ARTS SHALL BE TAUGHT? 15man who would intelligently use the modern con-veniences of his own home, or the labor-savingdevices and conveniences of business life, mustknow something of the materials and principles ofindustry; and if he is to have any adequate appre-ciation of the product if he is to judge the qualityof the thing he purchases or uses, he must knowsomething of the process that produced it. Infact, industrial development has been so rapidand so varied in our country it has affected everyman's life to such an extent that if he is to retainsufficient mastery of his environment to make itserve his needs, he is forced to acquire consider-able practical knowledge of the materials, princi-ples and processes of industry. As we havealready seen, this knowledge is not being handeddown from parent to child in any adequate way,and so we look to the school to furnish it.
Andif the school is to furnish it, the school must beequipped with the tools of industry.Having accepted the responsibility for givinginstruction in the industries, the school finds itselffacing a long series of problems of selection,organization and administration. Most of theseproblems are still unsolved, tho many of themare being solved.Perhaps the problem of first importance relatesto the selection of subject-matter. Which of themany manual arts shall be taught?
Are somemore fundamental than others? How can the1 6 THE MANUAL ARTSmanual arts be classified? What shall be thebasis of our choice between them? These ques-tions are consciously or unconsciously beinganswered for individual schools, but too oftenwithout a sufficiently broad view of the needs andthe possibilities. To find adequate answers onemust survey the whole field of the manual artsas applied to industry; he must search out a basisfor classification; then he must select fundamentalprocesses in each class.
Perhaps no better classi-fication has been suggested than the following:(a the graphic arts.(b) the mechanic arts.(c) the plastic arts.(d) the textile arts.(e) the book-making arts.These five should be found in every course in themanual arts which extends thru the elementaryschool period, and if cooking is more art thanscience, the culinary arts should form a sixth class.The graphic arts were the first to be given aplace in school work. These include all forms ofdrawing, both freehand and mechanical. Theindustries they represent are numerous architec-tural and machine drafting, all forms of engineer-ing drawing, designing for a variety of industries,and illustrating for newspapers, magazines andbooks.
The increasing importance of these artsis apparent to everyone who gives the matterWHICH OF THE MANUAL ARTS SHALL BE TAUGHT? 17thought, and the more one gives it thought, themore firmly convinced does he become that thereis great need of revising many of our schoolcourses in drawing so that they will be in harmonywith the needs of the industries. Courses may bemade far more practical than they are at the pres-ent time without being less cultural, and the morethey harmonize with the best industrial practicein these arts, the more highly will they be valuedby the community. Too often the drawing workhas been a blind struggle for self-expression, whengood representation would have been far better.Drawing is a language, and as such, a considerableknowledge of its symbols and forms must precedeeffective expression, especially in grades abovethe primary school. The fact that the graphicarts do serve as a language, transmitting thoughtconcerning form and relative size, direction andcurvature, tone and color, gives them a unique andimportant place in their relation to the other man-ual arts. For this reason, then, the graphic artsare fundamental, and rightly deserve first place inany course of instruction in the manual arts.But just as power to write good English isof comparatively little value without thoughts toexpress, so the graphic arts are robbed of halftheir value if not accompanied by some of theother manual arts.
Mechanical drawing, forexample, becomes too theoretical and often almostuseless when not accompanied by woodworking1 8 THE MANUAL ARTSand metalworking. Design, as we have been toldso many times during the past few years, and arenow just coming to believe, can be taught at itsbest only when associated with work in the mate-rial into which the design is to be wrought. Theuse of the object suggests the form; this is modifiedby the materials; both form and materials, to-gether with the tools, limit the design, and oftensuggest it. If necessary, other examples could begiven to show the dependence of the graphic artsupon the constructive arts. Without the graphicarts the constructive arts have no means of com-munication, no language; they are dumb.
With-out the constructive arts the graphic arts are lack-ing in content, in thought, in application. Theinterdependence is thus apparent.Of these constructive arts the mechanic artshave been most prominent in the minds of advo-cates of manual training. This is chiefly due tothe fact that they deal especially with the twogreat constructive materials of our civilizationwood and metal.
Not only the building and ma-chine industries, but most manufacturing andengineering enterprises ships, railways, privatevehicles, home furnishings and conveniences de-pend upon the skillful use of these two materials.The mechanic arts therefore appropriately headthe list of constructive arts.In marked contrast with the mechanic arts, yetin many ways associated with them, are the plasticWHICH OF THE MANUAL ARTS SHALL BE TAUGHT? These include brick and tile making, con-crete construction, pottery, terra cotta and model-ing. These arts at present find their best schoolcounterpart in clay-work. Year by year the indus-tries involving the plastic arts are becoming moreand more important. The exploitation of ourforests is making recourse to the clay bank anecessity in building. Demonstration of the possi-bilities of reinforced concrete construction is plac-ing sand and cement in competition with steel. Asthe cities grow in size calling for more largebuildings, the demand for ornamental tiles andterra cotta increases, and under similar circum-stances there is an increased demand upon theplastic arts for the decoration of the interiors ofbuildings.
From the standpoint of industry, then,the plastic arts constitute an important division ofthe manual arts, and from the school standpointclay-work is one of the very best means of train-ing; it is form study work par excellence.The fourth group of arts is the textile arts.This includes spinning, weaving, braiding, dyeing,basketry, knitting, sewing, embroidery, garmentmaking a large number of processes fundamentalin our civilization. No further discussion of theseis necessary; their vital importance is apparent.The fifth group consists of the book-making artsprinting, engraving, lettering, leather tooling,bookbinding and construction work with paper,cardboard and paste. While these arts are not20 THE MANUAL ARTSas fundamental to man's existence as the fourthgroup, which provides his clothing, and the secondand third, which provide his shelter, they do pro-vide his chief means of storing up thought andtransmitting it from one man to another and fromgeneration to generation. This group of arts,then, is essential to progress if not to existence,and to that extent it is fundamental. From theschool standpoint this group is one of especialvalue because it relates so readily to other schoolwork; many of its processes are simple, requiringbut little equipment and only such materials as arereadily obtainable.To these five may be added the culinary arts;yet for some reasons the preparation of foods ismore fittingly classified among the sciences thanamong the arts.
Undoubtedly it is both a scienceand an art, and whether it is more one than theother is of no importance here. The essentialpoint is that food-work is fundamental to civiliza-tion, and should have a place among the othermanual arts in the school.No school system should be satisfied withteaching only one or two of the manual arts; somepractical experience in all of them is necessary toprepare for the enjoyment of modern home andindustrial conditions, and essential to an adequateappreciation of the arts of modern life.The public school has a noble record and shouldnot be diverted from its traditional purpose, whichWHICH OF THE MANUAL ARTS SHALL BE TAUGHT? 21manifestly is to round out preparation for living,not in the remote or the near past, but to-day, inmodern surroundings. Thomas Davidson hassaid that education 'has grown with the growthof practical intelligence, and has been in all casesa preparation for life under existing institutions.' It is the schoolman's duty to analyze present con-ditions, determining what constitutes a prepara-tion for adequate living, and then shape the workof his school accordingly.CHAPTER II.THE PLACE OF THE MANUAL ARTS INEDUCATION.A S the field of school education broadens, its. aims and methods become more varied andcomplex, and often confused.
This is certainlythe case today in that department of educationwhich deals with the manual arts. The motivesfor the introduction of these arts have come tobe so varied that to think clearly concerning thisphase of school work is very difficult. This isperhaps fundamentally due to -changing socialideals and consequent demands, but it is partlydue to a failure of educators to recognize that themanual arts function in school education both in.attaining the end of education and in facilitatingthe educative process. The teacher needs to keepin mind this dual capacity which the manual artspossess as a means in education.This duality of function is not peculiar to themanual arts. It is equally true of the naturalsciences, and many have been the pedagogicalbattles fought out in that field in times past. Onecan readily recall the time when the science teach-ers were dwelling in two camps, one emphasizingthe facts of science and the other the method. ItTHE PLACE OF MANUAL ARTS IN EDUCATION 23would seem, therefore, that the arts might haveprofited by the experience of the sciences, but inmuch of the discussion during the past fifteenyears, this surely has not been the case and is nottoday.
One man looks upon the manual arts asa body of subject-matter to be taught as he wouldteach the facts of history; another insists that themanual arts must be regarded as a fundamentalmethod of education, and claims to care little ornothing for the subject-matter involved in thismethod. The place, therefore, of the manual artsin the one case is quite different from that in theother. One leads chiefly to a mastery of the ma-terials and the manual processes of industry, theother to a new motive and means of expression inteaching other subjects. The man whose visionpenetrates deep enough sees that the big truthconcerning the manual arts includes both of these,and that instead of being in conflict, they are reallyin harmony. When this viewpoint has been gained,a most fundamental step has been taken towardfinding the place of the manual arts in education.In discussing this larger view, four propositionsmay be considered:/. In so far as the end in education can beattained more readily through the employment ofthe manual arts, these arts should have a place ineducation.The end of education changes from age to ageas civilization advances, and should be in harmony24 THE MANUAL ARTSwith the ideals and institutions of the time.
Atthe present time no end seems so much in harmonywith needs and the highest ideals as that of socialefficiency in the individual. In its broad interpre-tation, this term seems to summarize all otherworthy aims, and points toward a goal not yetreached. Taking for granted, then, that the ulti-mate end of education is social efficiency in theindividual, the manual arts should have a place inschool education corresponding to their effective-ness in helping men to become socially efficient.As social efficiency in the individual means firstof all that each individual must be directly or indi-rectly a productive member of society, the artsmust answer the demand of productivity. To beproductive a man must at least 'pull his ownweight.' He may do so either 'directly as aproductive agent, or indirectly by guiding, inspir-ing, or educating others to productive effort.'
1As productivity in the great majority of individ-uals is the direct result of the intelligent and skill-ful use of the hands, it follows that training in themanual arts, which more than any other divisionof school work develops such use of the hands,should be given a place sufficiently large to allowsuch training to be effective. Until sufficient timeis allowed in the school program for manual arts,no one should expect large results from them.With a time allowance which will require as muchiBagley: The Educative Process.THE PLACE OF MANUAL ARTS IN EDUCATION 25of the pupil's effort as is given to the other funda-mental studies, both inside and outside the school,the manual arts will yield results which countlarge on the side of productivity.The manual arts contribute to social efficiencyin several ways. They not only give vocationalpower, contributing largely to ability to earn alivelihood, but they impart first-hand knowledge ofthe material accessories of modern life.
Everyman's effectiveness and happiness is dependent insome measure sometimes in large measureupon the ease and intelligence with which he util-izes the modern conveniences in his own home orthe material devices which make for economy andefficiency in business life. Moreover, the manualarts develop appreciation of beauty in its relationto material form, color, tone, and texture, whichis an element not only in esthetic enjoyment but ingeneral efficiency and productivity.
And, further,the manual arts provide a means in addition towritten language, of transmitting from generationto generation and age to age, some of the choicestthoughts and feelings of man. Since the manualarts contribute so largely to social efficiency, andsocial efficiency is the end sought in education, themanual arts deserve a place in school work.2. In so far as the educative -process can beaccelerated and made more thoro thru the em-ployment of the manual arts, these arts shouldhave a place in education.a6 THE MANUAL ARTSThe educative process is one of gaining ex-perience either directly, or indirectly, thru otherpersons or their records in books or works. Inthis process of gaining experience, the value andeffectiveness of indirect experience is dependentto a very large extent upon related direct experi-ence.
There is no substitute for such of thesedirect experiences as are fundamental, and thegreater the number, the greater will be 'the massof apperceiving ideas,' tho after some funda-mental direct experiences have been gained, it isoften economy to make use of indirect experiences.To gain the fundamental direct experience at thetime when needed and in the right relation to asso-ciated indirect experience is most desirable. Tobring this about is largely the work of the school,and therefore the school must have the necessarymeans at hand.Applied to the manual arts, this indicates thatif these arts are to be effectively taught in theschool, or if real appreciation of these arts is tobe developed, first-hand experience must be gainedin them in the school. It is folly to try to teacha girl to appreciate needlework without giving herneedle and thread and cloth and teaching her tosew, but after she has learned the fundamentalsof sewing this knowledge will serve as a basis forthe appreciation of results in needlework quitebeyond her skill to produce, and wholly beyondher ability to appreciate before she had learnedTHE PLACE OF MANUAL ARTS IN EDUCATION 27the fundamentals of needlecraft.
Moreover, manyof the other subjects of the school curriculumcertainly of the elementary school are naturallyso interwoven in the manual arts and find practi-cal application so widely thru them, that directexperience in these arts provides a motive, a need,recognizable by the child, which is at the basisof many of our modern methods of teaching. Achild wants to make a picture book.
In making ithe must measure and he must divide; he shouldalso increase his practical vocabulary; in additionto these he may learn something of the early his-tory of books and of the source of paper andstrawboard and cloth and paste; he may then col-lect pictures and learn something of the lives ofthe men who painted them and the thoughts andfeelings they desired to express thru them. Thusthe manual arts serve as a method or means ofteaching other subjects, and so contribute an ele-ment of value in the educative process.5.
If the place of the manual arts in educationdepends upon their service in attaining the end ofeducation and their value in the educative process,then they should be regarded as both subject andmethod.The history of handwork in education revealstwo traceable tendencies concerning the place ofthe manual arts which have been more or less inconflict. One has been to regard these arts asa subject and the other as a method.a8 THE MANUAL ARTSDr. Pabst of Leipsic has pointed out 1 thatHeusinger believed that the impulse to activityshould be used to lead man to avenues of knowl-edge which otherwise would remain closed to him.Froebel emphasized and developed this idea andplaced handwork at the very center of the curricu-lum.
Herbart, on the contrary, and many of hisfollowers, use handwork as a means of teachingthe other school subjects, and make handworkdependent upon the other branches of instructionfor its problems.